Tangshenoside I might be a potential bioactive marker related to the hematopoietic and immunologic functions of Codonopsis Radix, which could be recommended as the index compound. It has α-glucosidase inhibition activity.

2-Hydroxybutyric acid is formed as a by-product of the formation of alpha-ketobutyrate via a reaction catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) or alpha-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (alphaHBDH).

Inhibitor peptide corresponding to last 10 amino acids of the C-terminus of the GluA2 AMPA receptor subunit. Disrupts binding of GluA2 (at the C-terminal PDZ site) with glutamate receptor interacting protein (GRIP), AMPA receptor binding protein (ABP) and protein interacting with C kinase (PICK1). Increases amplitude of AMPA receptor-mediated currents and blocks long-term depression (LTD).