Dihydroxyfumaric acid is a known generator of superoxide anions and by hydroxyl free radicals. Dihydroxyfumarate exposure can cause insulin inhibitory effects. It can spontaneously convert to hydroxypyruvate or to oxaloglycolate.

Gomisin H is a natural product from Schizandra chinensis.

QL9 is derived from the enzyme 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase and belongs to the endogenous peptide repertoire of all H-2d APCs.